EPISTEMOLOGI ISLAM

MODEL EPISTEMOLOGI ISLAM

• Dalam kajian epistemologi Barat, dikenal ada tiga aliran pemikiran, yakni empirisme, rasionalisme dan intuitisme. Sementara itu, dalam pemikiran filsafat Hindu dinyatakan bahwa kebenaran bisa didapatkan dari tiga macam, yakni teks suci, akal dan pengalaman pribadi.[1]
  
  
• Dalam kajian pemikiran Islam terdapat juga beberapa aliran besar dalam kaitannya dengan teori pengetahuan (epistemologi). Setidaknya ada tiga model system berpikir dalam Islam, yakni bayâni, irfâni dan burhâni, yang masing-masing mempunyai pandangan yang sama sekali berbeda tentang pengetahuan.[2]
  
  
• Epistimologi Bayani.
  
  
• Bayani adalah metode pemikiran khas Arab yang didasarkan atas otoritas teks (nash), secara langsung atau tidak langsung. Secara langsung artinya memahami teks sebagai pengetahuan jadi dan langsung mengaplikasikan tanpa perlu pemikiran; secara tidak langsung berarti memahami teks sebagai pengetahuan mentah sehingga perlu tafsir dan penalaran. Meski demikian, hal ini bukan berarti akal atau rasio bisa bebas menentukan makna dan maksudnya, tetapi tetap harus bersandar pada teks.[3]
  
  
• Dengan demikian, sumber pengetahuan bayani adalah teks (nash), yakni al-Qur`an dan hadis.[4] Karena itulah, epistemologi bayani menaruh perhatian besar dan teliti pada proses transmisi teks dari generasi ke generasi.[5] Ini penting bagi bayani, karena –sebagai sumber pengetahuan-- benar tidaknya transmisi teks menentukan benar salahnya ketentuan hukum yang diambil. Jika transmisi teks bisa di pertanggung-jawabkan berarti teks tersebut benar dan bisa dijadikan dasar hukum. Sebaliknya, jika transmisinya diragukan, maka kebenaran teks tidak bisa dipertanggung jawabkan dan itu berarti ia tidak bisa dijadikan landasan hukum. Karena itu pula, mengapa pada masa tadwîn (kodifikasi), khususnya kodifikasi hadis, para ilmuan begitu ketat dalam menyeleksi sebuah teks yang diterima.
  
  
• Berdasarkan hal tersebut, bahwa bayani berkaitan dengan teks, maka persoalan pokoknya adalah sekitar lafat-makna dan ushûl-furû`. Misalnya, apakah suatu teks dimaknai sesuai konteksnya atau makna aslinya (tauqîf), bagaimana menganalogikan kata-kata atau istilah yang tidak disinggung dalam teks suci, bagaimana memaknai istilah-istilah khusus dalam al-asmâ’ al-syar`iyah, seperti kata shalat, shiyam, zakat.[6]
  
  
• Selanjutnya, untuk mendapatkan pengetahuan dari teks, metode bayani menempuh dua jalan. Pertama, berpegang pada redaksi (lafat) teks, dengan menggunakan kaidah bahasa Arab, seperti nahw dan sharâf. Kedua, berpegang pada makna teks dengan menggunakan logika, penalaran atau rasio sebagai sarana analisa.[7]
  
  
• Pada jalan yang kedua, penggunaan logika dilakukan dengan empat macam cara. Pertama, berpegang pada tujuan pokok (al-maqâshid al-dlarûriyah) yang mencakup lima kepentingan vital, yakni menjaga keselamatan agama, jiwa, akal, keturunan dan harta. Caranya dengan menggunakan induksi tematis (al-istiqra’ al-ma`wi) dan disitulah tempat penalaran rasional.[8]
  
• Kedua, berpegang pada illah teks. Untuk menemukan dan mengetahui adanya illah suatu teks ini digunakan sebuah sarana yang memerlukan penalaran yang disebut ‘jalan illah’ (masâlik al-illah) yang terdiri atas tiga hal, (1) illat yang telah ditetapkan oleh nash, seperti illat tentang kewajiban mengambil 20% harta fai (rampasan) untuk fakir miskin agar harta tersebut tidak beredar dikalangan orang kaya saja (QS. Al-Hasyr, 7). (2) illah yang telah disepakati oleh para mujtahid, misalnya illah menguasai harta anak yang masih kecil adalah karena kecilnya. (3) al-Sibr wa al-taqsîm (trial) dengan cara merangkum sifat-sifat baik untuk dijadikan illat pada asal (nash), kemudian illat itu dikembalikan kepada sifat-sifat tersebut agar bisa dikatakan bahwa illah itu bersifat begitu atau begini.[9] Cara kedua ini lebih lanjut memunculkan metode qiyâs (analogi) dan istihsân, yakni beralih dari sesuatu yang jelas kepada sesuatu yang masih samar, karena karena adanya alasan yang kuat untuk pengalihan itu.[10]
  
  
• Ketiga, berpegang pada tujuan sekunder teks. Tujuan sekunder adalah tujuan yang mendukung terlaksananya tujuan pokok. Misalnya, tujuan pokok adalah memberikan pemahaman materi kuliah pada mahasiswa, tujuan sekunder memberikan tugas. Adanya tugas akan mendukung pemahaman kuliah yang diberikan. Sarana yang digunakan untuk menemukan tujuan sekunder teks adalah istidlâl, yakni mencari dalil dari luat teks; berbeda dengan istimbât yang berarti mencari dalil pada teks.
  
  
• Keempat, berpegang pada diamnya Syâri` (Allah dan Rasul saw). Ini untuk masalah-masalah yang sama sekali tidak ada ketetapannya dalam teks dan tidak bisa dilkukan dengan cara qiyas. Caranya dengan kembali pada hukum pokok (asal) yang telah diketahui. Misalnya, hukum asal muamalah adalah boleh (al-ashl fî al-mu`âmalah al-ibâhah), maka jual beli lewat internet yang tidak ada ketentuannya berarti boleh, tinggal bagaimana mengemasnya agar tidak dilarang. Metode ini melahirkan teori istishhâb, yakni menetapkan sesuatu berdasar keadaan yang berlaku sebelumnya selama tidak ditemui dasar/ dalil yang menunjukkan perubahannya.[11]
  
  
• Epistemologi Irfani.
  

• Pengetahuan irfan tidak didasarkan atas teks seperti bayani, tetapi pada kasyf, tersingkapnya rahasia-rahasia realitas oleh Tuhan. Karena itu, pengetahuan irfani tidak diperoleh berdasarkan analisa teks tetapi dengan olah ruhani, dimana dengan kesucian hati, diharapkan Tuhan akan melimpahkan pengetahuan langsung kepadanya. Masuk dalam pikiran, dikonsep kemudian dikemukakan kepada orang lain secara logis. Dengan demikian pengetahuan irfani setidaknya diperoleh melalui tiga tahapan, (1) persiapan, (2) penerimaan, (3) pengungkapan, dengan lisan atau tulisan.
  
  
• Tahap pertama, persiapan. Untuk bisa menerima limpahan pengetahuan (kasyf), seseorang harus menempuh jenjang-jenjang kehidupan spiritual. Setidaknya, ada tujuh tahapan yang harus dijalani, mulai dari bawah menuju puncak (1) Taubat, (2) Wara`, menjauhkan diri dari segala sesuatu yang subhât, (3) Zuhud, tidak tamak dan tidak mengutamakan kehidupan dunia. (4) Faqir, mengosongkan seluruh fikiran dan harapan masa depan, dan tidak menghendaki apapun kecuali Tuhan swt, (5) Sabar, menerima segala bencana dengan laku sopan dan rela. (6) Tawakkal, percaya atas segala apa yang ditentukan-Nya. (7) Ridla, hilangnya rasa ketidaksenangan dalam hati sehingga yang tersisa hanya gembira dan sukacita..[12]
  
  
• Kedua, tahap penerimaan. Jika telah mencapai tingkat tertentu dalam sufisme, seseorang akan mendapatkan limpahan pengetahuan langsung dari Tuhan secara illuminatif. Pada tahap ini seseorang akan mendapatkan realitas kesadaran diri yang demikian mutlak (kasyf), sehingga dengan kesadaran itu ia mampu melihat realitas dirinya sendiri (musyâhadah) sebagai objek yang diketahui. Namun, realitas kesadaran dan realitas yang disadari tersebut, keduanya bukan sesuatu yang berbeda tetapi merupakan eksistensi yang sama, sehingga objek yang diketahui tidak lain adalah kesadaran yang mengetahui itu sendiri, begitu pula sebaliknya (ittihâd)[13] yang dalam kajian Mehdi Yazdi disebut ‘ilmu huduri’ atau pengetahuan swaobjek (self-object-knowledge).
  
  
• Ketiga, pengungkapan, yakni pengalaman mistik diinterpretasikan dan diungkapkan kepada orang lain, lewat ucapan atau tulisan. Namun, karena pengetahuan irfani bukan masuk tatanan konsepsi dan representasi tetapi terkait dengan kesatuan simpleks kehadiran Tuhan dalam diri dan kehadiran diri dalam Tuhan, sehingga tidak bisa dikomunikasikan, maka tidak semua pengalaman ini bisa diungkapkan.[14]
  
  
• Persoalannya, bagaimana makna atau dimensi batin yang diperoleh dari kasyf tersebut diungkapkan? Pertama, diungkapkan dengan cara I`tibâr atau qiyas irfani. Yakni analogi makna batin yang ditangkap dalam kasyf kepada makna zahir yang ada dalam teks.[15] Kedua, diungkapkan lewat syathahât, suatu ungkapan lisan tentang perasaan (al-wijdân) karena limpahan pengetahuan langsung dari sumbernya dan dibarengi dengan pengakuan, seperti ungkapan ‘Maha Besar Aku’ dari Abu Yazid Bustami (w. 877 M), atau Ana al-Haqq dari al-Hallaj (w. 913 M).[16] Karena itu, syathahat menjadi tidak beraturan dan diluar kesadaran.
  
  
• Epistemologi Burhani.
  
  
• Berbeda dengan bayani dan irfani yang masih berkaitan dengan teks suci, burhani sama sekali tidak mendasarkan diri pada teks. Burhani menyandarkan diri pada kekuatan rasio, akal, yang dilakukan lewat dalil-dalil logika. Perbandingan ketiga epistemologi ini adalah bahwa bayani menghasilkan pengetahuan lewat analogi furû` kepada yang asal; irfani menghasilkan pengetahuan lewat proses penyatuan ruhani pada Tuhan, burhani menghasilkan pengetahuan melalui prinsip-prinsip logika atas pengetahuan sebelumnya yang telah diyakini kebenarannya.[17] Dengan demikian, sumber pengetahuan burhani adalah rasio, bukan teks atau intuisi. Rasio inilah yang memberikan penilaian dan keputusan terhadap informasi yang masuk lewat indera.[18]
  
  
• Selanjutnya, untuk mendapatkan sebuah pengetahuan, burhani menggunakan aturan silogisme.[19] Mengikuti Aristoteles, penarikan kesimpulan dengan silogisme ini harus memenuhi beberapa syarat, (1) mengetahui latar belakang dari penyusunan premis, (2) adanya konsistensi logis antara alas an dan keismpulan, (3) kesimpulan yang diambil harus bersifat pasti dan benar, sehingga tidak mungkin menimbulkan kebenaran atau kepastian lain.[20]
  
  
• Al-Farabi mempersyaratkan bahwa premis-premis burhani harus merupakan premis-premis yang benar, primer dan diperlukan. Premis yang benar adalah premis yang memberi keyakinan, menyakinkan.[21] Suatu premis bisa dianggap menyakinkan bila memenuhi tiga syarat; (1) kepercayaan bahwa sesuatu (premis) itu berada atau tidak dalam kondisi spesifik, (2) kepercayaan bahwa sesuatu itu tidak mungkin merupakan sesuatu yang lain selain darinya, (3) kepercayaan bahwa kepercayaan kedua tidak mungkin sebaliknya. Selain itu, burhani bisa juga menggunakan sebagian dari jenis-jenis pengetahuan indera, dengan syarat bahwa objek-objek pengetahuan indera tersebut harus senantiasa sama (konstan) saat diamati, dimanapun dan kapanpun, dan tidak ada yang menyimpulkan sebaliknya.[22]
  
  
• Derajat dibawah silogisme burhani adalah ‘silogisme dialektika’, yang banyak dipakai dalam penyusunan konsep teologis. Silogisme dialektik adalah bentuk silogisme yang tersusun atas premis-premis yang hanya bertarap mendekati keyakinan, tidak sampai derajat menyakinkan seperti dalam silogisme demonstratif. Materi premis silogisme dialektik berupa opini-opini yang secara umum diterima (masyhûrât), tanpa diuji secara rasional. Karena itu, nilai pengetahuan dari silogisme dialektika tidak bisa menyamai pengetahuan yang dihasilkan dari metode silogisme demonstratif. Ia berada dibawah pengetahuan demontratif.[23]
  
  
• Penutup.
  
  
• Tiga epistemologi Islam ini mempunyai ‘basis’ dan karakter yang berbeda. Pengetahuan bayani didasarkan atas teks suci, irfani pada intuisi sedang burhani pada rasio. Masing-masing mempunyai kelebihan dan kekurangan. Untuk bayani, karena hanya mendasarkan diri pada teks, ia menjadi terfokus pada hal-hal yang bersifat aksidental bukan substansial, sehingga kurang bisa dinamis mengikuti perkembangan sejarah dan sosial masyarakat yang begitu cepat. Kenyataannya, pemikiran Islam saat ini yang masih banyak didominasi pemikiran bayani fiqhiyah kurang bisa merespon dan mengimbangi perkembangan peradaban dunia. Tentang burhani, ia tidak mampu mengungkap seluruh kebenaran dan realitas yang mendasari semesta.[24] Misalnya, burhani tidak mampu menjelaskan seluruh eksistensi diluar pikiran seperti soal warna, bau, rasa atau bayangan.
  
  
• Karena itu, Suhrawardi (1154-1192 M) kemudian membuat metode baru yang disebut iluminasi (isyrâqî) yang memadukan metode burhani yang mengandalkan kekuatan rasio dengan metode irfani yang mengandalkan kekuatan hati lewat kashaf atau intuisi. Metode ini berusaha menggapai kebenaran yang tidak dicapai rasional.[25] Namun demikian, pada masa berikutnya, metode isyraqi dirasa masih juga mengandung kelemahan, bahwa pengetahuan iluminatif hanya berputar pada kalangan elite terpelajar, tidak bisa disosialisasikan sampai masyarakat bawah, bahkan tidak jarang justru malah menimbulkan kontroversial. Muncullah metode lain, filsafat transenden (hikmah al-muta`aliyah), yang dicetuskan Mulla Sadra (1571-1640 M) dengan memadukan tiga metode dasar sekaligus; bayani yang tekstual, burhani yang rasional dan irfani yang intuitif.[26]
  
  
• Dengan metode terakhir ini, pengetahuan atau hikmah yang diperoleh tidak hanya yang dihasilkan oleh kekuatan akal tetapi juga lewat pencerahan ruhaniah, dan semua itu kemudian disajikan dalam bentuk rasional dengan menggunakan argumen-argumen rasional. Bagi kaum Muta`aliyah, pengetahuan atau hikmah tidak hanya memberikan pencerahan kognisi tetapi juga realisasi; mengubah wujud penerima pencerahan itu sendiri dan merealisasikan pengetahuan yang diperoleh sehingga terjadi transformasi wujud. Semua itu tidak bisa dicapai kecuali dengan mengikuti syariat, sehingga sebuah pemikiran harus menggaet metode bayani dalam sistemnya.[27]
  
  
• Namun demikian, untuk masa mutaakhir ini, metode Muta`aliyah mesti juga dipertanyakan. Sebab, persoalan keagamaan tidak hanya berkaitan dengan teks, rasio, ilham dan pengamalannya dalam bentuk praktek-praktek ritual melainkan juga mencakup kehidupan sosial, politik, sains-sains modern yang empiris dan bahkan teknologi tinggi (high technology). Epistemologi-epistemologi Islam klasik sudah tidak memadai untuk menghadapi kemajuan-kemajuan tersebut. Artinya saat ini diperlukan epistemologi baru dan inilah tantangan bagi calon intelektual muda muslim.
  
  
  
  NOTA
  Bakar, Osman, Hierarki Ilmu, terj. Purwanto, Bandung, Mizan, 1997.
  -------, Tauhid dan Sains, Bandung, Pustaka Hidayah, 1996.
  Buthi, Dlawâbith al-Mashlahah fî al-Syarî`at al-Islâmiyah, Beirut, Muassasat, tt.
  Ibn Rusyd, Fashl al-Maqâl Fîmâ Bain al-Hikmah wa al-Syarîah min al-Ittishâl, edit. M. Imarah, Mesir, Dar al-Ma`arif, tt.
  Jabiri, Bunyah al-Aql al-Arabi, Beirut, al-Markaz al-Tsaqafi al-Arabi, 1991.
  -------, Isykâliyât al-Fikr al-Arabi al-Mu`ashir, Beirut, Markaz Dirasah al-Arabiyah, 1989.
  James, William, the Varieties of Religious Experience, New York, 1936.
  Jamil, Fathur Rahman, Filsafat Hukum Islam, Jakarta, Logos, 1997
  Katz, Steven K., Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis, London, Sheldon Press, 1998.
  Khalaf, Abd Wahab, Ilm Ushul Fiqh, terj. Madar Helmi, Bandung, Gema Risalah Pres, 1996.
  Muthahhari, Murtadha, Menapak Jalan Spiritual, terj. Nasrullah, Bandung, Pustaka Hidayah, 1997.
  -------, Tema-Tema Filsafat Islam, Bandung, Mizan, 1993.
  Nashr, SH, Tasawuf Dulu & Sekarang, terj. Abd Hadi, Jakarta, Pustaka Firdaus, 1994.
  Nikhilananda, Swami, Hinduism It's Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, New York, Harper, 1958.
  Qusyairi, al-Risâlah, Beirut, Dar al-Khair, tt.
  Rahmat, Jalaluddin, “Hikmah Muta’aliyah Filsafat Pasca Ibn Rushd”, Jurnal Al-Hikmah, Bandung, edisi 10, September 1993.
  Syâthibi, al-Muwâfaqat fî Ushûl al-Ahkam, III, Beirut, Dar al-Fikir, tt.
  Usman, Iskandar, Istihsan dan Pembaharuan Hukum Islam, Jakarta, Rajawali, 1994.
  Yazdi, Mehdi Hairi, Ilmu Hudhuri, terj. Ahsin Muhamd, Bandung, Mizan, 1994.
  [1] Swami Nikhilananda, Hinduism It's Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, (New York, Harper, 1958), 4.
  [2] Lihat al-Jabiri, Bunyah al-Aql al-Arabi, (Beirut, al-Markaz al-Tsaqafi al-Arabi, 1991). Al-Jabiri ini Guru Besar Filsafat Islam pada Universitas Muhammad V, Rabat, Maroko.
  [3] Al-Jabiri, Ibid, 38.
  [4] Abd Wahab Khalaf, Ilm Ushul Fiqh, terj. Madar Helmi, (Bandung, Gema Risalah Pres, 1996), 22.
  [5] Al-Jabiri, Bunyah, 116.
  [6] Ibid, 58-62.
  [7] Ibid, 530.
  [8] Lihat al-Syâthibi, al-Muwâfaqat fî Ushûl al-Ahkam, III, (Beirut, Dar al-Fikir, tt), 62-4.; al-Buthi, Dlawâbith al-Mashlahah fî al-Syarî`at al-Islâmiyah, (Beirut, Muassasat, tt), 249-54.
  [9] Abd Wahab Khalaf, Ilm Ushul Fiqh, 127-35.
  [10] Fathur Rahman Jamil, Filsafat Hukum Islam, (Jakarta, Logos, 1997), 139-141. Urain lengkap tentang detail-detail Istihsan, lihat Iskandar Usman, Istihsan dan Pembaharuan Hukum Islam, (Jakarta, Rajawali, 1994).
  [11] Abd Wahab Khalaf, Ilm Ushul Fiqh, 154.
  [12] Al-Qusyairi (w. 1072 M) mencatat ada 49 tahapan yang harus dilalui, Abu Said ibn Abu al-Khair mencatat 40 tahapan, Abu Nashr al-Tusi mencatat 7 tingkatan, sedang Thabathabai menulis 24 jenjang. Lihat, al-Qusyairi, al-Risâlah, (Beirut, Dar al-Khair, tt), 89-350; Husein Nashr, Tasawuf Dulu & Sekarang, terj. Abd Hadi, (Jakarta, Pustaka Firdaus, 1994), 89-96; Muthahhari, Menapak Jalan Spiritual, terj. Nasrullah, (Bandung, Pustaka Hidayah, 1997), 120-155.
  [13] Mehdi Hairi Yazdi, Ilmu Hudhuri, terj. Ahsin Muhamd, (Bandung, Mizan, 1994), 51-53. Uraian tentang kasyf, lihat al-Qusyairi, al-Risâlah, 75.
  [14] Mehdi Yazdi, Ilmu Hudhuri, 245-268; William James, The Verievities of Religious Experience, (New York, 1936), 271-72; Steven K. Katz, Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis, (London, Sheldon Press, 1998), 23;
  [15] Jabiri, Bunyah, 295-6.
  [16] Ibid, 288.
  [17] Al-Jabiri, Isykâliyât al-Fikr al-Arabi al-Mu`ashir, (Beirut, Markaz Dirasah al-Arabiyah, 1989), 59.
  [18] Lihat Ibn Rusyd, Fashl al-Maqâl Fîmâ Bain al-Hikmah wa al-Syarîah min al-Ittishâl, edit. M. Imarah, (Mesir, Dar al-Ma`arif, tt), 56.
  [19] Al-Jabiri, Bunyat, 385 dan seterusnya. Disini dijelaskan sejarah panjang silogisme demonstratif, mulai dari Aristoteles sampai al-Farabi, dan hubungan burhani dengan persoalan bahasa.
  [20] Ibid, 433-436.
  [21] Osman Bakar, Hierarki Ilmu, terj. Purwanto, (Bandung, Mizan, 1997), 106.
  [22] Ibid
  [23] Sebagai perbandingan, lihat Ibn Rusyd, Fashl al-Maqâl, 56-67.
  [24] Murtadha Muthahhari, Tema-Tema Filsafat Islam, (Bandung, Mizan, 1993), 43.
  [25] Mehsi Aminrazavi, Pendekatan Rasional Suhrawardi, 76 dan seterusnya. Lihat pula Osman Bakar, Tauhid dan Sains, (Bandung, Pustaka Hidayah, 1996), 29 dan seterusnya.
  [26] Jalaluddin Rahmat, Hikmah Muta’aliyah Filsafat Pasca Ibn Rushd, Jurnal Al-Hikmah, (Bandung, edisi 10, September 1993), 78.
  [27] Jalaluddin Rahmat, Ibid.
• A Khudori Soleh
  

MALAYA AND RACES

• INDEPENDENCE OF MALAYA AND THE FORMATION OF MALAYSIA.
  
  3.1 RACIAL PROBLEMS
  
  
• Malaya consists of a ‘"plural society" which was formed by different races with various backgrounds and customs. In The Malaysian Development Experience, Changes and Challenges book that published by INTAN, states that Malaya is "a colonial creation with ethnic groups living side by side but never mixed". Many factors have caused this situation.
  

• The first can be traced back to the "divide and rule" policy during British colonization. This kind of administration greatly limited interaction and communication among the different ethnic groups and segregated them according to their economic functions.
  

• The Malays were known to be farmers and fishermen and lived in the rural areas or kampung. Since there were also Malays who were involved in the government sector as ordinary officers and clerks, they were perceived to be dominant in politics and the first group of people that the British negotiated with.
  

• Most of the Chinese were involved in the commercial and mining sectors and were found mainly in urban areas. The Indians, on the other hand, worked as labourers in estates and plantations. Hence, these two races were perceived to be more dominant in the economics of the country. The education system, as it was long before we know it today, also varied according to the different ethnic groups in terms of syllabus, curriculum and methods of dissemination. There was no such thing as a standardized education system back then.
  

• While the Malays and Indians felt that a minimal amount of literacy was sufficient, the Chinese were vying to strengthen their bond with China through education, since most of the teachers and textbooks were imported from China. The same concept was practiced in Tamil schools. Since these vernacular schools comprised a single race, lessons were conducted in its respective language, such as Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Due to the inconsistencies and differences in the education system, there existed barriers and gaps among the different races in Malaya.
  

• The Japanese occupation only widened the rift between the races, especially the Chinese and Malays. While the Malays were given better treatment by the Japanese who were in need of their support, the Chinese were tortured and brutally mistreated. This led to the formation of the Malayan Peoples’ Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) to fight the Japanese. To ward off attacks from resistance groups which comprised mainly Chinese, the Japanese instigated the anti-Chinese feeling by forming paramilitary units which consisted mainly of Malays, and thus, further widened the gap among the two races.
  

• When the Communists began their violence in the 1948, the British were forced to declare a state of Emergency throughout Malaya. It was during this period that inter-racial relations became worse since the British had formed forces, comprising mostly Malays, to fight the guerilla groups led by the Communists, who were mainly Chinese. All of these factors caused a great division in the Malayan society and much effort had to be taken to resolve the problem.
  
  

• 3.1.1 Efforts Towards Racial Unity
  
  
• In 1949, the Inter-Racial Relations Committee (Jawatankuasa Hubungan Antara Kaum) was formed, to enable leaders of various ethnic groups to find a solution to the existing racial problems.
  

• The committee, comprising Dato’ Onn bin Jaafar, Tan Cheng Lock, E.E.C Thuraisingham and 12 other members proposed that non-Malays be involved in local politics and more opportunities be given to the Malays in the business and industrial sectors.
  

• The committee also proposed that greater racial tolerance and understanding be fostered in the hope of achieving racial unity. In 1951, the British government formed the Member System, with the hope of achieving racial unity. The member system was similar to the Cabinet system as we know it today, and enabled people from various ethnic groups to get involved in the administration of the government and hold portfolios in areas such as Home Affairs, Agriculture, Land, Mines and Communication, Education, Health, Forestry, and Works and Housing. Although the more important portfolios in areas of finance and defense were still dominated by the British, the involvement of leaders of various ethnic groups enabled co-operation among the different races.
  

• Education also played an important role in paving the way towards racial unity in Malaya. In 1949, the Central Advisory Committee took form with the main purpose of unifying the local education system and implementing it. However, the committee failed to achieve its goal and its proposal that English be made the sole medium of education in schools in the Holgate Report was vehemently opposed by the Federal Legislative Council. Although the committee did not achieve much, it was a clear indication that the British were indeed making an effort to unify the multiracial society through education with one medium of instruction.
  

• Another committee which was established one year later, produced the Barnes Report, which recommended in 1952, that the syllabus of all primary schools be standardized and taught in English and Malay, while secondary schools retain English as their mode of instruction.
  

• Led by Dr W.P.Fenn and Dr Y.T. Wu, the British formed yet another committee to study the status of Chinese vernacular education in Malaya to incorporate it into a unified education system. The result was the Fenn-Wu report, which agreed to a national education system, but at the same time, proposed that Chinese medium schools be maintained.
  

• Finally, in 1952, the Education Ordinance based on the Barnes Report was approved. The Chinese and Indians were not in the least bit happy and resisted the new ruling. However, the long-awaited decision on the national education system was only seen in the Razak Report after much deliberation and ethnic bargaining. The report was subsequently approved by the Federal Legislative Council on 16th May, 1956.
  

• (Details of the Razak Report can be read in Chapter 6)

THE UNIVERSE, PERCEPTION AND CONCEPTION

• Every doctrine and every philosophy of life is indispensably based on a sort of belief, an evaluation of life and a sort of interpretation and analysis of the world.

• The way of thinking of a school in respect of life and the world is considered to be the basis of the entire thinking of that school. This basis is called the world conception of that school. All religions, social systems, schools of thought and social philosophies are based on a particular world conception. All the goals which a school presents, the ways and methods which it brings into existence are the corollaries of the conception of the world that it entertains.
  

• The philosophers say that there are two kinds of wisdom: practical and theoretical. Theoretical wisdom is to know the existing things as they are. Practical wisdom is to find out how one should lead his life. This 'should' is the logical result of 'how they are', especially those 'how they are, with which metaphysical philosophy deals.

• Conception of the World and Perception of the World

• Evidently we should not confuse the conception of the world with its sense perception. Conception of the world has the sense of cosmogony and is linked with the question of identification. Unlike sense perception, which is common to man and other living beings, identification is peculiar to man, and hence conception of the world is also peculiar to him. It depends on his thinking and understanding.
  

• From the point of view of sense perception of the world, many animals are more advanced than man, because either they are equipped with certain senses which man lacks, as it is said that birds have a radar sense, or their senses, although common to them and man, are sharper than the senses possessed by man, as is said of the sight of the eagle, of the sense of smell of the dog and ant and of the sense of hearing of the rat. Man is superior to other animals because he has a deep conception of the world. Animals only perceive the world, but man can interpret it also.
  

• What is identification? What is the relationship between perception and identification? What elements other than perceptional ones are part of identification? How do they enter identification and from where? What is the mechanism of identification? What is the standard by which correct and incorrect identification are judged?
  

• These are the questions which require a separate treatise, and at present we are unable to take them up. Anyhow, it is certain that perception of a thing is different from its identification. Many people view a scene and all of them see it alike, but only a few of them can interpret it, and they too often differ?
  

• Varieties of World Conception
  

• On the whole there are three kinds of world conception or world identification or, in other words, man's interpretation of the universe. It can be inspired by three sources: science, philosophy and religion. So we can say that there are three kinds of world conception: scientific, philosophical and religious.
  

• Scientific Conception of the World
  

• Now let us see how and to what extent science helps us form an opinion. Science is based on two things, theory and experiment. For the discovery and interpretation of a phenomenon first a theory comes to the mind of a scholar and then on its basis he carries out experiments in the laboratory. If it is corroborated by the experiment, it gains acceptance as a scientific principle and remains valid till a better and a more comprehensive theory appears and is corroborated by experiment. With the appearance of a new and more comprehensive theory, the old theory becomes invalid. That is how science discovers the cause and the effect of a experiment. Then it again tries to discover the cause of that cause and the effect of that effect. This process continues so long as possible.
  

• The scientific work has many advantages and disadvantages as it is based on practical experiment. The greatest advantage of the scientific discoveries is that they are specific and particular.
  

• Science can impart to man a lot of information about a particular It can give a volume of knowledge about one single leaf of a tree. Furthermore, because it acquaints man with the particular laws governing each thing, it enables him to control and use things his advantage, and thus promotes industry and technology.
  

• Though science can teach man thousands of things about a particular thing, yet the knowledge imparted by science being specific, its scope is limited. Experiments place a limitation in it. Science can go forward only to the extent it is possible for it to make an experiment. Obviously it cannot experiment with the entire creation and all its aspects. Science can go forward in pursuit of causes and effects only to a certain extent and then it reaches the stage of 'unknown'. It is like a powerful searchlight which illuminates a limited area, and does not throw light beyond its range. No experiment can be made on such questions whether this world has a beginning and an end or is it infinite from both sides? When a scholar reaches this point, he consciously or unconsciously resorts to philosophy to express his opinion. From the stand point of science this world is an old book the first and the last pages of which have been lost. Neither its beginning is known nor its end. The reason is that the scientific conception of the world is the outcome of the knowledge of a part of, not of the whole. Science informs us of the position of some parts of the world, not of the features and the characteristics of the whole of it. The scientific conception of the world held by scientists is like the conception of an elephant acquired by those who passed their hands on it in darkness. He who touched the ear of the elephant thought that it was like a fan; he who touched its leg thought that it was like a pillar and he who touched its back thought that it was like a raised platform.
  

• Another drawback of the scientific conception of the world is that it cannot be the basis of any ideology, for science is inconstant and changeable from its practical aspect, that is the aspect of showing reality as it is and inviting faith in the nature of the reality of creation. Scientifically the features of the world change from day to day, because science is based on a combination of theory and experiment and not on self-evident rational truths. The theory and experiment have a temporary value only. As such the scientific conception of the world is an inconstant and changeable conception and is not fit to become the basis of faith. Faith requires a more stable or rather an eternal basis.
  

• The scientific conception of the world, because of the limitation imposed on it by the tools of science (theory and experiment), is unable to answer a number of questions, the definite answer of which is essential for an ideology. Such questions are: From where has this world come? Where does it go? From the viewpoint of time has the world a beginning and an end? What is its position from the viewpoint of place? Is or is not the existence, on the whole, something good and meaningful? Is the world governed by some essential and unchangeable norms and laws, or does no such thing exists? Is the creation on the whole a living and conscious unit or is man alone an accidental exception? Can an existing thing become non-existent or a non-existing thing become existent? Is the restoration of a non-existing thing possible or impossible? Is the exact re-creation of the world and history in all their details possible even after billions of years (Theory of recurring in Cycles?) Is unity preponderant or multiplicity? Is the world divided into material and non-material, and is the material world a small part of the entire world? Is the world rightly guided and perceptive or is it imperceptible and blind? Are man and the world in a state of reciprocity? Does the world show reaction to the good and bad deeds of man? Does there exist an eternal life in the wake of this transient life? There are so many other similar questions.
  

• Science does not answer all these questions, for it cannot make an experiment with them. Science can answer only limited and particular questions, but is unable to draw a general picture of the world. We give an example to make our point clear.
  

• An individual may have a local knowledge of a big city. He may know a part of it in detail and may be able to draw a picture of its roads, lanes and even houses. Another person may have a similarly detailed knowledge of another part of the city, and a third, a fourth and a fifth person may know other parts of it. If we collect information from all of them, we may get enough information about each part of the city. But will this information be enough to have a complete and overall picture of it? For example, can we know what shape the city is; whether it is circular, quadrangular or of the shape of a leaf? If it resembles a leaf, then a leaf of which tree? How are various areas of it connected with each other? What sort of automobiles connect them? Is the city on the whole beautiful or ugly? Evidently we cannot get all this information.
  

• If we want to have such information and for example if we want to know the shape of the city or want to know whether it is beautiful or ugly, we should ride an aircraft and have an overall aerial view of it.
  

• As we have said, science is unable to answer the basic questions necessary to form a conception of the world. It cannot provide an overall picture of the whole body of the universe.
  

• Leaving all this aside, the value of scientific conception of the world is practical and technical, not theoretical, while an ideology can be based on theoretical value only. Had the reality of the world been as depicted by science, that would have constituted the theoretical value of science. Its practical and technical value lies in the fact that irrespective of its depicting or not depicting reality, it enables man to perform fruitful tasks.

• Modern industry and technology demonstrate the practical value of science. It is really amazing that in the modern world while technical and practical value of science has increased, its theoretical value has been reduced.
  

• Those who are not fully conversant with the role of science, may think that along with its undeniable practical progress science has also enlightened the conscience of man and has convinced him of the reality as depicted by it. But that is not a fact.
  

• From the foregoing it is clear that an ideology requires that kind of conception of the world which (i) may answer the basic questions concerning the universe as a whole, not only a part of it; (ii) may be an eternal and reliable conception, not a transient and passing one; and (iii) may have a theoretical and realistic value also not merely a practical and technical one. Thus, it is also clear that the scientific conception of the world, despite of its other merits, lacks all these three requirements.
  

• Philosophical Conception of the World
  

• Though philosophical conception of the world is not as exact and specific as scientific conception, it is based on a number of principles which are self-evident and undeniable by the mind. These principles proceed logically and are general and comprehensive. As such they have the advantage of being firm and constant. Philosophical conception of the world is free from that inconstancy and limitations which are found in scientific conception. Philosophical conception of the world answers all questions on which the ideologies depend. It identifies the overall shape and features of the world. Both the scientific and philosophical conceptions are a prelude to action, but in two different ways. Scientific conception is a prelude to action because it enables man to control nature and introduce changes in it. Man by means of science can use nature to his advantage as he wishes. Philosophical conception is a prelude to action in the sense that it determines man's choice of his way of life. It affects his reaction to his encounter with the world. It fixes his attitude and gives him a particular outlook on the world and the creation. It either gives an ideal to man or takes away an ideal from him. It either gives meaning to his life or draws him to absurdity and nothingness. That is why we say that science cannot give man a world conception that may become the basis of an ideology, but philosophy can.
  

• Religious Conception of the World

• If we regard every expression of an overall view of the world and the creation as a philosophical conception, not taking into consideration whether the source of this conception is a guess or reasoning or a revelation from the unknown world, religious and philosophical conceptions belong to the same domain. But if we take their source into account, philosophical and religious conceptions of the world are undoubtedly two different things.
  

• In certain religions like Islam, religious conception of the world, has taken a philosophical or argumentative colour and is an integral part of the religion itself. The questions raised by religion are based on reasoning and proof. Thus Islamic conception of the world is rational and philosophical. Besides the two merits of philosophical conception, namely eternity and comprehensiveness, religious conception of the world unlike scientific and purely philosophical conceptions, possesses one more merit of sanctification of the principles of world conception.
  

• If we keep in view that an ideology, besides requiring faith in the eternity and inviolability of the principles held sacred by it, requires a belief in and adherence to a school of thought, it becomes clear that its basis can be only that conception of the world which has a religious colour.
  

• From the foregoing discussion it may be inferred that a conception of the world can be the basis of an ideology only if it possesses stability, philosophical broad thinking and the sanctity of religious principles.
  

• How to Judge an Ideology?
  
• A perfect ideology is that which:
  (i) Can be proved and expressed in a logical form; in other words, is logically and intellectually tenable;
  (ii) Gives meaning to life and removes nihilistic ideas from the mind;
  (iii) Is inspiring;
  (iv) Is capable of giving sanctity to the human and social goals; and
  (v) Makes man accountable.
  

• If an ideology is logically tenable, the way is paved for its being accepted intellectually and there being no ambiguity about it, action as suggested by it becomes easy.
  

• An inspiring ideology makes its school attractive and gives it warmth and power.
  

• The sanctification of the goals of a school by its ideology, makes it easy for the adherents of this school to make sacrifice for its cause. If a school does not declare its goals to be sacred, it cannot create a sense of adoration and sacrifice in regard to its principle, nor can there be any guarantee of the success of such a school.
  

• The accountability of man declared by a conception of the world, commits the individual to the depth of his conscience and makes him responsible to himself and to society.
  

• Monotheistic Conception of the World
  

• All these qualities and characteristics which are an essential requirement of a good conception of the world are found in monotheistic conception. It is the only conception which has all these characteristics. Monotheistic conception means the realization of the fact that the world has come out of a wise will and that its system is founded on mercy, munificence and all that is good. It aims at leading the existing things to a perfection befitting them. Monotheistic conception means that the world is 'mono-axis' and 'mono-orbit'. It means that the world is 'from Allah' and returns' to Allah'.
  

• All the existing things of the world are harmonious and their evolution proceeds towards the same centre. Nothing has been created in vain and without having a purpose. The world is being managed under a series of definite systems known as 'Divine law'. Among the existing things man enjoys a special dignity, and has a special duty and a special mission. He is responsible for his own promotion and perfection as well as the reform of his society. The world is a school, and Allah rewards everyone according to his intention and valid effort.
  

• Monotheistic conception of the world is supported by logic, science and sound arguments. Every particle of the world is a sign of the existence of an All-Wise and All-Knowing Allah and every leaf of a tree is a book of spiritual knowledge.
  

• Monotheistic conception of the world gives to life a meaning, a spirit and a goal. It puts man on a way to perfection on which he continues to march forward without stopping at any stage.
  

• Monotheistic conception of the world has a special attraction. It gives vitality and vigour to man. It puts forward lofty and sacred goals and produces selfless individuals.
  

• Monotheistic conception of the world is the only conception of it which gives meaning to the responsibility of people to each other. Similarly it is the only conception that saves man from falling into the abyss of absurdity.
  

• Islamic Conception of the World
  

• Islamic conception of the world is monotheistic. Islam has presented monotheism in its purest form. From Islamic point of view, Allah has no like of Him and nothing can be compared to Him: "There is nothing like Him." (Surah As-Shura42:11)
  

• Allah is absolutely independent. All depend on Him, but He depends on none: "You are in need of Allah. And Allah! He is Absolute, Laudable."( Surah Al-Fatir 35:15)

• Allah is aware of everything. He can do whatever He likes:
  "He is fully aware of everything." (Surah As-Shura 42:12)
  "He is able to do all things." (Surah Al-Hajj 22:6)
  

• Allah is everywhere. Every place, whether it is above the sky or in the depth of the earth has the same relation to Him. To whatever direction we stand, we face Him: "Wherever you turn, there is Allah's countenance" (Surah Al Baqarah 2:115)
  

• Allah knows what is in the hearts of people. He is aware of their intentions and aims: "Indeed We have created man and We know what his soul whispers." (Surah Qaf 50:16) Allah is closer to man than his jugular vein: "We are nearer to him than his jugular vein." (Surah Qaf 50:16)

• Allah has all the good attributes and is free from every defect: "Allah's are the fairest names." (Surah Al-Araf 7:180) Allah is not a material organism and cannot be seen with eyes: "Vision does not comprehend Him, but He comprehends all vision." (Surah Al-Anam 6:106)

• From the stand point of monotheistic and Islamic conception of the world, the universe is a creation and is looked after by Divine will and attention. If Divine attention were withheld for a moment, the whole universe would be annihilated in no time.
  

• This world has not been created in vain or in jest. There are many advantages implied in the creation of man and the world. Nothing has been created unbecoming and futile. The existing system of the universe is the best and the most perfect. It manifests justice and truth and is based on a sequence of causes and effects. Every result is a logical consequence of a cause and every cause produces a specific effect. Divine destiny brings a thing into existence through its specific causes only, and it is a chain of causes which constitutes the Divine destiny of a thing.
  

• Divine will always operates in the world in the form of a law or a general principle. Divine laws do not change. Whatever changes take place, they are always in accordance with some law. Good and evil in the world are related to man's own conduct and his own deeds. Good deeds and bad deeds, besides being recompensed in the next world, have their reaction in this world also. Gradual evolution is a Divine law. This world is a nursery for the development of man.
  

• Divine destiny is supreme in the whole world. Man has been destined by it to be free and responsible. He is the master of his own destiny. Man has his special dignity. He is fit to be the vicegerent of Allah. This world and the Hereafter are but two interconnected stages like those of sowing and harvest, for one reaps what one sows. They may also be compared to the two periods of childhood and old age, for the latter period is the outcome of the former.

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